SAM
The Self-Assessment Manikin
Researchers turned to non-verbal methods, specifically visually oriented measures of emotional response, in order to eliminate many of the problems associated with verbal based measures. The Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM), a picture based scale, was advanced as an alternative to verbal measures. Visually oriented scales using a graphic character eliminate the majority of problems associated with verbal measures. SAM are a graphic characters designed to visually represent the PAD semantic differential emotion dimensions.

SAM depicts each PAD dimension with a graphic character arranged on a linear nine-point scale. The Pleasure (P) scale has a character ranging from a smiling, happy SAM to a frowning, unhappy SAM. The Arousal (A) scale is a character that ranges from a sleeping SAM with eyes closed to a frenzied, excited SAM with eyes wide open. The Dominance (D) scale ranges from a small submissive SAM to a large powerful SAM. This scale differs from the first two in that it is arranged in reverse order, representing the inverse relationship between stimulus potency and the corresponding emotional reaction. Subjects can complete ratings on the SAM scale in less than 15 seconds, virtually eliminating respondent burnout and allowing more stimuli to be examined in a single research setting.

The PAD theory of emotion and the SAM scales have been widely applied in psychology, personnel management and marketing and communications. The PAD theory gained the attention of communication researchers interested in advertising research, especially for strategy development and copy testing. The visually oriented Self-Assessment Manikin has demonstrated its effectiveness in evaluating the full range of affective responses in a wide variety of marketing communications research conditions.